Summary of research
The below research conclusions are a series of selected excerpts from an extensive literature review undertaken by The Beacon Equity Trust into youth leadership development. Although this forms the bedrock of the asynchronous learning curriculum in ARLLS, it has been informed with practice over time from the leadership development programme in Beacon.
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“…it is possible that development occurs more readily in childhood and adolescence than in adulthood because one’s behavior, personality, and skills are more malleable at a young age than in adulthood… We argue that early points in life represent a sensitive period for development. Unlike a crucial period (which is a period by which an ability must be developed or it cannot occur), sensitive periods reflect a time in life when skills are more easily and rapidly developed… Second, one’s development to eventually become a leader is a self-reinforcing process. For example, as one gains greater leadership efficacy, or confidence in one’s ability to lead a group, that individual is more likely to engage in leadership experiences, which will serve to increase the individual’s leadership efficacy” (Murphy & Johnson, 2011).
While leadership training is almost always incorporated into youth leadership development programs, it is sometimes difficult to determine the effectiveness of trainings programs alone. One study by Hynes, Feldhusen, and Richardson (1978) evaluated a model specifically for youth leadership training based on three stages:
Stage 1: Self-instructional materials are used to teach basic information about a leadership topic and brief
Stage 2: Learners participate in group simulations designed to structure the application and synthesis of the basic leadership knowledge taught in Stage 1
Stage 3: Learners complete individual projects designed to encourage personal involvement concerning what was learned from Stages 1 and 2.
An evaluation was conducted to see how these stages would affect a learner’s knowledge of leadership (Stage 1), leadership behavior (Stage 2), and leadership attitudes (Stage 3). The results for Stage 1 showed conclusively that students who studied the training materials knew more about leadership than students in the control group… In contrast to the results for Stage 1, the results for Stage 2 did not support the hypothesis that leadership training would produce improved leadership behaviour, and the results for Stage 3 did not show that leadership training changed leadership attitudes.
“… students who studied the training materials knew more about leadership than students in the control group” (Hynes et al., 1978).
“…it seems that limited consensus can be identified, suggesting which areas of leadership ability may be amenable to instruction and which areas may be less susceptible to such influence. Synthesizing existing research, two youth leadership trait clusters that appear to be readily susceptible to instruction incorporate (a) interpersonal skills (Chan, 2000a) or persuasive ability (Smith et al, 1991) and (b) perceived self-efficacy (Chan, 2000), self-assuredness (Smith et al, 1991), or self-knowledge. With somewhat more effort, knowledge base or verbal ability (at young ages) may be increased through instruction, although this combination is more diffuse when compared to the first two trait clusters” (Matthews, 2004).
The chance to learn and practice personal and social skills is frequently provided through a series of seminars and workshops. These skill-building sessions address topics such as conflict resolution, creative thinking, cultural competence, personal efficacy, identity with community, decision making, communication, networking, and a greater understanding of social realities. (Zimmermann-Oster and Burkhardt, 2000)
Capstone events are often used to crystallize students’ leadership experiences. These events can take many forms: course work, project governance, mentoring students who are new to the program, or other experiential activities. (Zimmermann-Oster and Burkhardt, 2000)
The 5 critical skills every up-and-coming leader needs to master:
1. Identifying and developing future talent.
2. Strategic thinking
3. Managing successful change
4. Decision-making and prioritization
5. Influencing others
(Global Leadership Forecast conducted by DDI, 2023)
One expects to begin to see creative thinking and creative performance as the youngster moves from a level of competence to an elite or expert level in any field, including leadership. Sustained interest in pursuing one’s dream of becoming a leader and a commitment to excellence are critical to reach the highest levels; creativity is much easier to nurture and encourage if the student is passionate about becoming a leader and has a ‘rage’ to learn. (Piirto, 2008; Winner, 1996)
A substantial investment of time is necessary to reach the highest levels as a leader. (Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Romer, 1993)
If students of uncanny ability continue to successfully progress along the talent development trajectory to expertise and even eminent status as a leader, the following factors become increasingly important: specific interpersonal skills, drive, persistence, self-confidence, passion for leading others, facilitative motivational beliefs, a willingness to listen and learn from others, and the dream of becoming a leader. (Piirto, 2008; Winner, 1996).
One’s development to eventually become a leader is a self-reinforcing process. For example, as one gains greater leadership efficacy, or confidence in one’s ability to lead a group, that individual is more likely to engage in leadership experiences, which will serve to increase the individual’s leadership efficacy. (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms, 2008)
Analogous to a snowball effect, small developmental experiences at an early age (when the snowball is small) can have a profound impact on future development outcomes, given the reinforcing nature of leader development. (Eden, 1993)
If one of the goals is to maximize employability post-graduation then curriculum should focus on aspects that influence employer perceptions of employability, such as curriculum mapping. For example, there is often team-based learning in academic training, but rarely trained explicitly on the processes, roles, tensions, or conflict management required for teamwork (Chhinzer 2017).
An Exploratory Study of Factors Affecting Undergraduate Employability. Finch D, Hamilton LK, Education + Training 55(7), (2013).
An Exploration of Employer Perceptions of Graduate Student Employability. Chhinzer N, Russo A, Education + Training 60(3) (2017).
Application of a Three-stage Model of Instruction to Youth Leadership Training. Hynes K, Feldhusen JF, & Richardson WB, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 63, Iss. 5, (Oct 1978).
Assessing Leadership Among Chinese Secondary Students in Hong Kong: The Use of the Roets Rating Scale for Leadership. Chan DW, Gifted Child Quarterly, 44(2), 115–122 (2000a).
The Benefits of a Long-lens Approach to Leader Development: Understanding the Seeds of Leadership. Murphy SE, Johnson SK, The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 459–470 (2011).
Developing the Creative Leadership Training Program for Gifted and Talented Students in Hong Kong. Chan DW, Roeper Review, 22, 94–97 (2000b).
Developing Leadership Skills among Adolescents and Young Adults: A Review of Leadership Programmes. Karagianni D, Montgomery AJ, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth (March 2017)
Exploring the Development of Leadership Giftedness. Smith DL, Smith L, & Barnette J, Roeper Review, 14, 7–12 (1991).
Gifted Children: Myths And Realities. Winner E, Basic Books, (1996).
Leadership – A Lifetime Quest for Excellence. Piirto, D.D., Publications of Seinajoki University of Applied Sciences, Volume 6, Issue 3-4 (2014).
Leadership Education for Gifted and Talented Youth: A Review of the Literature. Matthews MS, Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28(1), 77–113 (2004).
Leadership Efficacy: Review and Future Directions. Hannah ST, Avolio BJ, Luthans F, & Harms PD, The Leadership Quarterly, 19(6), 669–692, (2008).
Leadership and Expectations: Pygmalion Effects and Other Self-fulfilling Prophecies in Organizations. Eden D, Leadership Quarterly, 3(4), 271–305.(1992).
Leadership in the Making: A Comprehensive Examination of the Impact of Leadership Development Programs on Students. Zimmerman-Oster K, Burkhardt JC, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Volume 6, Issue 3-4 (1999)
Leadership Skills Training for Chinese Secondary Students in Hong Kong: Does Training Make a Difference? Chan DW, Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 14, 166–174 (2003)
The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance. Ericsson KA, Krampe RT, & Tesch-Romer C, Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406 (1993).
Soft Skills to Enhance Graduate Employability: Comparing Students and Employers’ Perceptions. Succi C, Canovi M, Studies in Higher Education (2019)
Wider research sources
Content in our modules is based on wider research from these publications.
Academy of Management Executive
Academy of Management Journal
Academy of Management Review
Accountancy
Across the Board
Administrative Science Quarterly
Advertising Age
American Business Review
Bulletpoint
Business Finance
Business Horizons
Business Strategy Review
Career Development Quarterly
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
Investor Relations Business
Communication World
Communications of the ACM
Control Engineering
Corporate Reputation Review
Economist
Employee Benefits Journal
Employee Relations
Employment Relations Today
Engineer
Engineering Management Journal
European Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology
European Management Journal
Executive Excellence
Fast Company
Financial Times
Forbes
Fortune
Group and Organization Management
Harvard Business Review
Harvard Management Update
HBS Working Knowledge
Health & Safety Executive
HR Focus
HR Magazine
Human Resource Management
Human Resources
Human Resources Planning
Incentive
Industrial Management
Industrial Research Institute
Information & Management
Information Management Journal
Information Systems Management
Institute of Employment Studies
International Journal of Human
Resource Management
Internetweek
Ivey Management Journal
Journal for Quality and Participation
Journal of American Academy of
Business
Journal of Applied Psychology
Journal of Business and Psychology
Journal of Business Ethics
Journal of Business Strategy
Journal of Change Management
Journal of Communication
Management
Journal of Consumer Research
Journal of Leadership &
Organizational Studies
Journal of Management Studies
Journal of Managerial Issues
Journal of Marketing
Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology
Journal of Organisational Behaviour
Journal of Services Marketing
Journal of Workplace Learning
Leader to Leader
Manage
Management
Management Communication
Quarterly
Management Decision
Management Focus
Manager Update
McKinsey Quarterly
Medium
Mind Tools
MIS Quarterly
MIT Sloan Management Review
New Statesman
New Technology, Work and
Employment
Online
Organisational Dynamics
Organization Development Journal
Organization Science
People Management
Performance Improvement
Personnel Decisions
Personnel Psychology
Personnel Review
Personnel Today
Positive Psychology
Professional Manager
Professional Training
Psychology Today
Public Administration Review
Public Management
Public Personnel Management
Public Relations Quarterly
Research in Personnel and Human
Resources Management
Risk Management
Roffey Park Report
Sales & Marketing Management
SAM Advanced Management Journal
Sloan Management Review
Strategic Communication
Management
Strategic Finance
Strategic HR Review
Supervision
Target Marketing
Team Performance Management
Team Performance Management
Technology Analysis & Strategic
Management
The Industrial Law Journal
The Industrial Society
The Journal for Quality & Participation
The Journal of Business Strategy
The Learning Organization
Time
Training
Training Journal
Trends in Organizational Behaviour
Wall St Journal
Workforce
Works Management