Summary of research
The below research conclusions are a series of selected excerpts from an extensive literature review undertaken by The Beacon Equity Trust into youth leadership development. Although this forms the bedrock of the asynchronous learning curriculum in ARLLS, it has been informed with practice over time from the leadership development programme in Beacon.
Click on the titles to expand for more information.
Starting leadership development young takes advantage of a ‘sensitive period’ in formative growth; as one gains confidence in one’s efficacy as a leader, a ‘snowball effect’ occurs and more leadership opportunities are taken on.
“…it is possible that development occurs more readily in childhood and adolescence than in adulthood because one’s behavior, personality, and skills are more malleable at a young age than in adulthood… We argue that early points in life represent a sensitive period for development. Unlike a crucial period (which is a period by which an ability must be developed or it cannot occur), sensitive periods reflect a time in life when skills are more easily and rapidly developed… Second, one’s development to eventually become a leader is a self-reinforcing process. For example, as one gains greater leadership efficacy, or confidence in one’s ability to lead a group, that individual is more likely to engage in leadership experiences, which will serve to increase the individual’s leadership efficacy” (Murphy & Johnson, 2011).
“…it is possible that development occurs more readily in childhood and adolescence than in adulthood because one’s behavior, personality, and skills are more malleable at a young age than in adulthood… We argue that early points in life represent a sensitive period for development. Unlike a crucial period (which is a period by which an ability must be developed or it cannot occur), sensitive periods reflect a time in life when skills are more easily and rapidly developed… Second, one’s development to eventually become a leader is a self-reinforcing process. For example, as one gains greater leadership efficacy, or confidence in one’s ability to lead a group, that individual is more likely to engage in leadership experiences, which will serve to increase the individual’s leadership efficacy” (Murphy & Johnson, 2011).
Self-instructional training improves knowledge of leadership.
While leadership training is almost always incorporated into youth leadership development programs, it is sometimes difficult to determine the effectiveness of trainings programs alone. One study by Hynes, Feldhusen, and Richardson (1978) evaluated a model specifically for youth leadership training based on three stages:
Stage 1: Self-instructional materials are used to teach basic information about a leadership topic and brief
Stage 2: Learners participate in group simulations designed to structure the application and synthesis of the basic leadership knowledge taught in Stage 1
Stage 3: Learners complete individual projects designed to encourage personal involvement concerning what was learned from Stages 1 and 2.
An evaluation was conducted to see how these stages would affect a learner’s knowledge of leadership (Stage 1), leadership behavior (Stage 2), and leadership attitudes (Stage 3). The results for Stage 1 showed conclusively that students who studied the training materials knew more about leadership than students in the control group… In contrast to the results for Stage 1, the results for Stage 2 did not support the hypothesis that leadership training would produce improved leadership behaviour, and the results for Stage 3 did not show that leadership training changed leadership attitudes.
While leadership training is almost always incorporated into youth leadership development programs, it is sometimes difficult to determine the effectiveness of trainings programs alone. One study by Hynes, Feldhusen, and Richardson (1978) evaluated a model specifically for youth leadership training based on three stages:
Stage 1: Self-instructional materials are used to teach basic information about a leadership topic and brief
Stage 2: Learners participate in group simulations designed to structure the application and synthesis of the basic leadership knowledge taught in Stage 1
Stage 3: Learners complete individual projects designed to encourage personal involvement concerning what was learned from Stages 1 and 2.
An evaluation was conducted to see how these stages would affect a learner’s knowledge of leadership (Stage 1), leadership behavior (Stage 2), and leadership attitudes (Stage 3). The results for Stage 1 showed conclusively that students who studied the training materials knew more about leadership than students in the control group… In contrast to the results for Stage 1, the results for Stage 2 did not support the hypothesis that leadership training would produce improved leadership behaviour, and the results for Stage 3 did not show that leadership training changed leadership attitudes.
Youth leadership trainings can help enhance young people’s knowledge of core leadership concepts (Hynes et al., 1978) as well as some leadership skills such as interpersonal skills and persuasive and attitudes such as self-efficacy and self-assuredness (Matthews, 2004).
“… students who studied the training materials knew more about leadership than students in the control group” (Hynes et al., 1978).
“…it seems that limited consensus can be identified, suggesting which areas of leadership ability may be amenable to instruction and which areas may be less susceptible to such influence. Synthesizing existing research, two youth leadership trait clusters that appear to be readily susceptible to instruction incorporate (a) interpersonal skills (Chan, 2000a) or persuasive ability (Smith et al, 1991) and (b) perceived self-efficacy (Chan, 2000), self-assuredness (Smith et al, 1991), or self-knowledge. With somewhat more effort, knowledge base or verbal ability (at young ages) may be increased through instruction, although this combination is more diffuse when compared to the first two trait clusters” (Matthews, 2004).
The chance to learn and practice personal and social skills is frequently provided through a series of seminars and workshops. These skill-building sessions address topics such as conflict resolution, creative thinking, cultural competence, personal efficacy, identity with community, decision making, communication, networking, and a greater understanding of social realities. (Zimmermann-Oster and Burkhardt, 2000)
Capstone events are often used to crystallize students’ leadership experiences. These events can take many forms: course work, project governance, mentoring students who are new to the program, or other experiential activities. (Zimmermann-Oster and Burkhardt, 2000)
The 5 critical skills every up-and-coming leader needs to master:
1. Identifying and developing future talent.
2. Strategic thinking
3. Managing successful change
4. Decision-making and prioritization
5. Influencing others
(Global Leadership Forecast conducted by DDI, 2023)
“… students who studied the training materials knew more about leadership than students in the control group” (Hynes et al., 1978).
“…it seems that limited consensus can be identified, suggesting which areas of leadership ability may be amenable to instruction and which areas may be less susceptible to such influence. Synthesizing existing research, two youth leadership trait clusters that appear to be readily susceptible to instruction incorporate (a) interpersonal skills (Chan, 2000a) or persuasive ability (Smith et al, 1991) and (b) perceived self-efficacy (Chan, 2000), self-assuredness (Smith et al, 1991), or self-knowledge. With somewhat more effort, knowledge base or verbal ability (at young ages) may be increased through instruction, although this combination is more diffuse when compared to the first two trait clusters” (Matthews, 2004).
The chance to learn and practice personal and social skills is frequently provided through a series of seminars and workshops. These skill-building sessions address topics such as conflict resolution, creative thinking, cultural competence, personal efficacy, identity with community, decision making, communication, networking, and a greater understanding of social realities. (Zimmermann-Oster and Burkhardt, 2000)
Capstone events are often used to crystallize students’ leadership experiences. These events can take many forms: course work, project governance, mentoring students who are new to the program, or other experiential activities. (Zimmermann-Oster and Burkhardt, 2000)
The 5 critical skills every up-and-coming leader needs to master:
1. Identifying and developing future talent.
2. Strategic thinking
3. Managing successful change
4. Decision-making and prioritization
5. Influencing others
(Global Leadership Forecast conducted by DDI, 2023)
Bright students require a variety of structured and real-world learning experiences before we can expect that they will display the imagination, originality, and resourcefulness which are hallmarks of creative leadership.
One expects to begin to see creative thinking and creative performance as the youngster moves from a level of competence to an elite or expert level in any field, including leadership. Sustained interest in pursuing one’s dream of becoming a leader and a commitment to excellence are critical to reach the highest levels; creativity is much easier to nurture and encourage if the student is passionate about becoming a leader and has a ‘rage’ to learn. (Piirto, 2008; Winner, 1996)
A substantial investment of time is necessary to reach the highest levels as a leader. (Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Romer, 1993)
One expects to begin to see creative thinking and creative performance as the youngster moves from a level of competence to an elite or expert level in any field, including leadership. Sustained interest in pursuing one’s dream of becoming a leader and a commitment to excellence are critical to reach the highest levels; creativity is much easier to nurture and encourage if the student is passionate about becoming a leader and has a ‘rage’ to learn. (Piirto, 2008; Winner, 1996)
A substantial investment of time is necessary to reach the highest levels as a leader. (Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Romer, 1993)
A self-fulfilling prophecy is when others’ high expectations for another cause that individual to meet those high expectations because of increased attention, access to resources, or self-efficacy.
If students of uncanny ability continue to successfully progress along the talent development trajectory to expertise and even eminent status as a leader, the following factors become increasingly important: specific interpersonal skills, drive, persistence, self-confidence, passion for leading others, facilitative motivational beliefs, a willingness to listen and learn from others, and the dream of becoming a leader. (Piirto, 2008; Winner, 1996).
One’s development to eventually become a leader is a self-reinforcing process. For example, as one gains greater leadership efficacy, or confidence in one’s ability to lead a group, that individual is more likely to engage in leadership experiences, which will serve to increase the individual’s leadership efficacy. (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms, 2008)
Analogous to a snowball effect, small developmental experiences at an early age (when the snowball is small) can have a profound impact on future development outcomes, given the reinforcing nature of leader development. (Eden, 1993)
If students of uncanny ability continue to successfully progress along the talent development trajectory to expertise and even eminent status as a leader, the following factors become increasingly important: specific interpersonal skills, drive, persistence, self-confidence, passion for leading others, facilitative motivational beliefs, a willingness to listen and learn from others, and the dream of becoming a leader. (Piirto, 2008; Winner, 1996).
One’s development to eventually become a leader is a self-reinforcing process. For example, as one gains greater leadership efficacy, or confidence in one’s ability to lead a group, that individual is more likely to engage in leadership experiences, which will serve to increase the individual’s leadership efficacy. (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms, 2008)
Analogous to a snowball effect, small developmental experiences at an early age (when the snowball is small) can have a profound impact on future development outcomes, given the reinforcing nature of leader development. (Eden, 1993)
Among the top 10 job skills of tomorrow are soft skills like Teamwork, Communication, Listening, Creative Thinking, Leadership.
If one of the goals is to maximize employability post-graduation then curriculum should focus on aspects that influence employer perceptions of employability, such as curriculum mapping. For example, there is often team-based learning in academic training, but rarely trained explicitly on the processes, roles, tensions, or conflict management required for teamwork (Chhinzer 2017).
If one of the goals is to maximize employability post-graduation then curriculum should focus on aspects that influence employer perceptions of employability, such as curriculum mapping. For example, there is often team-based learning in academic training, but rarely trained explicitly on the processes, roles, tensions, or conflict management required for teamwork (Chhinzer 2017).
Critical Leadership Skills Every Young Person Needs To Shine. Perna MC, Forbes (2023)
An Exploratory Study of Factors Affecting Undergraduate Employability. Finch D, Hamilton LK, Education + Training 55(7), (2013).
An Exploration of Employer Perceptions of Graduate Student Employability. Chhinzer N, Russo A, Education + Training 60(3) (2017).
Application of a Three-stage Model of Instruction to Youth Leadership Training. Hynes K, Feldhusen JF, & Richardson WB, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 63, Iss. 5, (Oct 1978).
Assessing Leadership Among Chinese Secondary Students in Hong Kong: The Use of the Roets Rating Scale for Leadership. Chan DW, Gifted Child Quarterly, 44(2), 115–122 (2000a).
The Benefits of a Long-lens Approach to Leader Development: Understanding the Seeds of Leadership. Murphy SE, Johnson SK, The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 459–470 (2011).
Developing the Creative Leadership Training Program for Gifted and Talented Students in Hong Kong. Chan DW, Roeper Review, 22, 94–97 (2000b).
Developing Leadership Skills among Adolescents and Young Adults: A Review of Leadership Programmes. Karagianni D, Montgomery AJ, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth (March 2017)
Exploring the Development of Leadership Giftedness. Smith DL, Smith L, & Barnette J, Roeper Review, 14, 7–12 (1991).
Gifted Children: Myths And Realities. Winner E, Basic Books, (1996).
Leadership – A Lifetime Quest for Excellence. Piirto, D.D., Publications of Seinajoki University of Applied Sciences, Volume 6, Issue 3-4 (2014).
Leadership Education for Gifted and Talented Youth: A Review of the Literature. Matthews MS, Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28(1), 77–113 (2004).
Leadership Efficacy: Review and Future Directions. Hannah ST, Avolio BJ, Luthans F, & Harms PD, The Leadership Quarterly, 19(6), 669–692, (2008).
Leadership and Expectations: Pygmalion Effects and Other Self-fulfilling Prophecies in Organizations. Eden D, Leadership Quarterly, 3(4), 271–305.(1992).
Leadership in the Making: A Comprehensive Examination of the Impact of Leadership Development Programs on Students. Zimmerman-Oster K, Burkhardt JC, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Volume 6, Issue 3-4 (1999)
Leadership Skills Training for Chinese Secondary Students in Hong Kong: Does Training Make a Difference? Chan DW, Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 14, 166–174 (2003)
The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance. Ericsson KA, Krampe RT, & Tesch-Romer C, Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406 (1993).
Soft Skills to Enhance Graduate Employability: Comparing Students and Employers’ Perceptions. Succi C, Canovi M, Studies in Higher Education (2019)
An Exploratory Study of Factors Affecting Undergraduate Employability. Finch D, Hamilton LK, Education + Training 55(7), (2013).
An Exploration of Employer Perceptions of Graduate Student Employability. Chhinzer N, Russo A, Education + Training 60(3) (2017).
Application of a Three-stage Model of Instruction to Youth Leadership Training. Hynes K, Feldhusen JF, & Richardson WB, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 63, Iss. 5, (Oct 1978).
Assessing Leadership Among Chinese Secondary Students in Hong Kong: The Use of the Roets Rating Scale for Leadership. Chan DW, Gifted Child Quarterly, 44(2), 115–122 (2000a).
The Benefits of a Long-lens Approach to Leader Development: Understanding the Seeds of Leadership. Murphy SE, Johnson SK, The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 459–470 (2011).
Developing the Creative Leadership Training Program for Gifted and Talented Students in Hong Kong. Chan DW, Roeper Review, 22, 94–97 (2000b).
Developing Leadership Skills among Adolescents and Young Adults: A Review of Leadership Programmes. Karagianni D, Montgomery AJ, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth (March 2017)
Exploring the Development of Leadership Giftedness. Smith DL, Smith L, & Barnette J, Roeper Review, 14, 7–12 (1991).
Gifted Children: Myths And Realities. Winner E, Basic Books, (1996).
Leadership – A Lifetime Quest for Excellence. Piirto, D.D., Publications of Seinajoki University of Applied Sciences, Volume 6, Issue 3-4 (2014).
Leadership Education for Gifted and Talented Youth: A Review of the Literature. Matthews MS, Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28(1), 77–113 (2004).
Leadership Efficacy: Review and Future Directions. Hannah ST, Avolio BJ, Luthans F, & Harms PD, The Leadership Quarterly, 19(6), 669–692, (2008).
Leadership and Expectations: Pygmalion Effects and Other Self-fulfilling Prophecies in Organizations. Eden D, Leadership Quarterly, 3(4), 271–305.(1992).
Leadership in the Making: A Comprehensive Examination of the Impact of Leadership Development Programs on Students. Zimmerman-Oster K, Burkhardt JC, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Volume 6, Issue 3-4 (1999)
Leadership Skills Training for Chinese Secondary Students in Hong Kong: Does Training Make a Difference? Chan DW, Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 14, 166–174 (2003)
The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance. Ericsson KA, Krampe RT, & Tesch-Romer C, Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406 (1993).
Soft Skills to Enhance Graduate Employability: Comparing Students and Employers’ Perceptions. Succi C, Canovi M, Studies in Higher Education (2019)